The inclusion of offal, which usually has a lower value than meat, in any meat product in the EU and UK must be declared on the label. This literature review investigated appropriate methods to determine the adulteration of meat with offal, especially those technologies suitable for future validation to underpin a high throughput, low-cost method suitable for application by enforcement laboratories. The technologies, which determine elemental composition and peptide markers, were particularly highlighted as demonstrating potential for future development.

Read the abstract here

EVOO is one of the foods lidentified as being very vulnerable to food fraud. This comprehensive review examines the  application of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to EVOO as a reliable and rapid tool to verify different aspects of its adulteration, such as undeclared blends with cheaper oils and cultivar, and geographical origin mislabelling. NMR makes it possible to use both targeted and untargeted approaches, and to determine the olive oil metabolomic profile and the quantification of its constituents.

Read the full open access paper here

 This article gives a rapid overview of what is food fraud, how it is detected, and how it is being tackled in the USA.

Read the article here

The NCSC (National Cyber Security Centre) is a UK Government organisation, which offers practical guidance on cybersecurity and responds to cybersecurity incidents. It has issued advice to anyone thinking about using blockchain in their supply chain. The advice is contained in a White Paper looking at distributed ledger technology, and whether this is the appropriate technology and the best tool for the job, as well as some of the misconceptions around the technology.

Read the blockchain blog, and the White Paper.

Front-face fluorescence spectroscopy (FFFS) can detect fluorescent molecules in solid matrices without contact and sample preparation. This study explores the potential use of FFFS as a rapid, non-destructive technique coupled with multi-variate analysis for predicting beef adulteration with chicken. Samples of varying amounts of raw, minced chicken mixed with uncooked minced beef were prepared (1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, and 100%). Fluorescence spectra were obtained from pure and prepared adulterated meat samples, and principle component analysis, partial least square regression and hierarchical cluster analysis were used as chemometric tools. The chemometrics were able to determine adulteration in minced beef meat from 10% chicken meat, but were unable to  determine adulteration from below 5%. 

Read the full open access paper

Labmate Online has published 4 articles this month, which deal with food fraud:

What is food fraud?      

A complete guide to food fraud and foodomics      

 What is the most common form of food fraud?

4 Types of food fraud  

These give a good introduction to the subject.

This paper details the within-laboratory and inter-laboratory trial validation of a multiplex real-time PCR method for the simultaneous, sensitive and specific detection and semi-quantitative estimation of the nut species - peanut, hazelnut, walnut and cashew in processed food. The assay developed for the 4 species of nuts (peanut, hazelnut, walnut and cashew) was based on a TaqMan™ real-time PCR method, which targeted  multicopy sequences from mitochondrial, ribosomal RNA genes and chloroplasts, respectively. A series of prepared cookies, sausages, sauce powders, and veggie burgers spiked with different amounts of the 4 defatted nuts were used for the validation trials.The within-laboratory trial checked the specificity, crosstalk, sensitivity [limit of detection (LOD) including asymmetric LOD], precision and trueness of the assay. The inter-laboratory trial with 12 participating laboratories conducted both qualitative and quantitative determinations, and determined trueness/recoveries, precision, and measurement uncertainty. Using multicopy target sequences, a very sensitive detection of the allergenic ingredients is possible. Within the collaborative trial, a concentration of 0.64 mg/kg (i.e. approx. 0.1–0.2 mg “nut” protein/kg) could be reliably detected in a processed cookie matrix. With regards to quantitative analysis, there was insufficient recovery data (bias) resulting in measurement uncertainties of more than 50%. The results of in-house tests suggest that roasting of nuts is the main factor inducing deviant (low) recoveries.

Read the full open access paper

Species identification of mussels (Mytilus spp.) is challenging not only because there are 7 species commercialised globally, but there is hybridisation of species where they coexist in the same geographical area. The most popular approach to specimen identification is sequencing analysis, which can be performed by different methods.One of them is the Forensically Informative Nucleotide Sequencing (FINS), which involves the estimation of sequence similarity among specimens by phylogenetic methods is based on genetic distances and drawing a phylogenetic tree. However, methodologies based on tree topologies perform poorly for species identification.

In this study, the performance of two mono-locus approaches for species identification  in 61 Mytilus mussels are compared: the high-resolution melting analysis of the PAP (polyphenolic adhesive protein) gene and the partial sequencing of the H1C (histone) gene. The H1C sequences were analysed with five different methods. Both approaches show discrepancies in the identification of putative hybrids, but  if the putative hybrids are excluded, the two methods show substantial to perfect agreement. This study highlights the need to use standardised molecular tools, as well as the use of multi-locus methods for SI of Mytilus mussels in testing laboratories.

Read the full open access paper here

The continued depletion of wild fish stocks is leading to increased strain on the aquaculture sector in terms of sustaining the supply of fish and seafood to global markets. This article examines how digital transformation can help support and meet expansion needs of the fisheries/aquaculture industries that includes exploiting and harnessing ICT (information and communications technology), IoT (internet of things), Cloud-edge computing, AI (artificial intelligence), machine learning, immersive technologies and blockchain. Digital technologies can bring significant operational benefits for the global food chain, improving efficiencies and productivity, reducing waste, contamination and food fraud.

Read the full open access article here

Cypriot halloumi cheese was grant PDO status in October 2021, after a 7 year consideration by the European Commission. Sales and exports of Cypriot halloumi generated €270m annually in 2020/1. Recently, German authorities have confiscated Cypriot halloumi because it did not have PDO certification, and cheesemakers in Cyprus have also seen their products confiscated by Cypriot customs officials before being loaded onto planes heading for EU markets, as they did not comply with PDO criteria. The main issue appears to be the ratio of goats and sheeps milk to cows milk, which must be greater than 51% to meet the PDO specification. A non-negotiable compromise has been issued by the Cypriot President, which amongst other things gives cheesemaker two months to fully comply with the PDO specification. 

Read the article here

Seafood is one of the foods which suffers a high prevalence of food fraud. This review examines reported seafood fraud incidents from the European Union's Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed, Decernis's Food Fraud Database, HorizonScan, and LexisNexis databases between January 01, 2010 and December 31, 2020. It provides a global comparison, and assesses food fraud trends across 80 countries and 72 seafood species. It also provides an analysis of the types of fraud that exist within the seafood supply chain and the supply chain nodes that are more vulnerable to criminality.

Read the full open access paper

DNA analysis to check wine authenticity and integrity has been reported in several previous studies. This study examines the survival of DNA during wine storage, before and after bottling in the  case of a large Italian wine cooperative. Two monovarietal productions: red sparkling Bonarda PDO and white Pinot gris PDO, were followed starting from the end of oenological practices until 1 year after bottling. The wine was analysed using SSR (simple sequence repeats or microsatellites) DNA analysis for four consecutive months before bottling, and month 2, 8 and 12 after bottling. The results showed that after 8 months, DNA degradation increased significantly in the red wine samples in particular, which would hinder DNA traceability.

Read the abstract here

The production of “smokies” involves the illegal slaughter of sheep, which have their fleece retained on the carcasses, and burnt with blow torches to impart a smoked flavour to the meat. The illegal trade in “smokies” is a serious public health risk, as the meat is often infected with diseases and parasites that could pass to those people who eat the meat. The animals are also killed inhumanely with no regard to their welfare, hence this process is illegal in the UK and many European countries. 

Robert Thomas was found to be part of an organised crime group (OCG), who were involved in running an illegal meat operation, where “smokies” were being prepared for human consumption. Mr Thomas was initially prosecuted in 2015, but lied about his assets. He was extradited from Ireland in February 2022 and prosecuted in June 2022 for perjury. However, it appears that Mr Thomas will be subject to further legal proceedings.

Read the article here

The European Commission's Joint Research Centre (JRC) has published its June 2022 Food Fraud Monthly Summary reporting food fraud incidents and investigations from around the world. These have been kindly represented as an infographic above by our Member Bruno Séchet, and thanks for allowing us to share it with the rest of the Network.

Included in this month's Summary is a reference to a 2021 Italian Report on food fraud inspection, and an Oceana report claiming half of Mexico's seafood is illegally fished.

You can download the full summary here

In Ecuador, the cocoa bean clone CCN-51 is grown for bulk cocoa bean use, whereas the "Arriba Nacional" variety is highly valued for its fine cocoa flavour. An assay based on in-vitro use of CRISPR-Cpf1, which is suitable for AT-rich targets, such as the chloroplast genome (cpGenome), was developed to give a rapid differentiation between the two cocoa varieties. Two assay systems were used to digest both Arriba and CCN-51. The results were tested qualitatively by agarose gel electrophoresis, and quantitatively by capillary gel electrophoresis. Using this assay, admixtures containing 5% CCN-51 (P < 0.01) in Arriba and 10% Arriba (P < 0.05) in CCN-51were reliably detected. The application to processed cocoa products was also successful.

Read the abstract here

S3Food is a European funded initiative to bring digital innovation to the agrifood sector. One of the projects based in Greece, combines DNA profiles of the olives and the EVOO into the blockchain system. Other quality parameters such geographical location, yield, harvesting and milling time and other quality parameters are also entered into the blockchain information system. This is designed to ensure that there is (non-tampering) full traceability from olive grove to shelf, and hence assure the integrity of the olive oil along the supply chain from farm to fork. The whole traceability story will be available to consumers by means of a QR code.

Read the project's short summary here, or the food press article here

Vanilla is used widely in the food industry, and is a high value ingredient. A rapid assay has been developed using DAPCI (Desorption Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionisation) coupled with a time-of-flight mass spectrometer, to distinguish natural vanilla from imitation vanilla. The assay can be directly applied to vanilla pods/powder or vanilla extracts. Pure extracts produced mass spectra with no additives detected (ethyl vanillin, piperonal and coumarin). Coumarin which is restricted in some coutries had a limit of detection of 0.1ppb. The method is being investigated to see if country of origin can be verified.

Read the abstract here

The EU Alert and Cooperation Network is made up of members of the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed network (RASFF), the Administrative Assistance and Cooperation network (AAC) and the Agri-Food Fraud Network (FFN). European Commission has just published its 2021 report of the Alert and Cooperation Network, which shows that 2021 recorded the highest number of exchanges ever reached. 

Among suspicions of fraud, the most frequent notifications were related to the illegal movement of cats and dogs with 114 in total, while more than half of those involved animals coming from non-EU countries. Pets were often accompanied by counterfeit health certificates, illegally issued EU passports providing false information on the origin, or forged rabies anti-body laboratory results. The latter is of particular concern for animals coming from countries where rabies remains widespread. The report also flags that E-commerce is also becoming a more and more important route by which certain foods reach consumers. In 2021, a total of 281 RASFF notifications related to e-commerce as the main way of trade. Half of notifications about products traded online concerned dietetic foods, food supplements and fortified foods, followed by food contact material, reported in one third of the notifications. 

Read the 2021 Report here

Chicken MSM is produced by recovering the residual flesh under very high pressure after the removal of chicken parts from the carcase. Because of the production method, it has lost it myofibrillar structure, and is recovered as a paste. It has to be labelled separately if used in meat products such as sausages. An LC-MS/MS method has been developed, which uses intervertebral disc and cartilage specific peptides to detect MSM in meat and sausage products.The method was validated using a blinded study. In conclusion, the LC–MS/MS assay allowed the specific detection of MSM in real samples with unknown composition down to 10% MSM in the meat content.

This method was used to analyse 30 poultry sausages and meat products manufactured in Germany, which found that 9 of the samples tested positive for undeclared chicken MSM, which the manufacturers deny.

Read the open access LC-MS/MS paper here and the Press article on the survey here

This consumer study identifies the degree of adulteration in some commonly used food items bought by Ghanaian consumers and the means of detection.  A sample of 384 women over the age of 18 years, who purchase and prepare various food items in the Volta Region of Ghana were chosen, and presented with a questionnaire in person by the researchers. Over 70% of the respondents knew about food adulteration, and the price of the food item was one good indication especially if it was much lower than usual. Half of the respondents mentioned the following foods: groundnut paste, powdered chilli pepper, tomato paste, tomato powder, honey, palm oil, sugar, and beef as some of the food products prone to adulteration.

Read the full paper here